Solomon’s Theological Framework and Legacy

 

Solomon’s Wives and Intellectual Influence

 
Solomon, reigning c. 970–931 BCE, married 700 wives of royal birth from nations like Egypt, Phoenicia (Sidon), Moab, and Ammon (1 Kings 11:1-3). These marriages, often political, brought intellectual exchange from cultural centers known for their sages and religious traditions.

• Egypt: The daughter of Pharaoh (1 Kings 3:1) introduced Egyptian wisdom, such as the Instruction of Amenemope, influencing Proverbs 22:17-24:22. Egyptian theology, with gods like Amun-Ra and Ma’at (goddess of cosmic order), shaped Solomon’s view of divine hierarchies.
• Phoenicia (Sidon): Sidonian wives brought Canaanite myths of El and Athtart (Ashtoreth), seen in Ugaritic texts (Baal Cycle, KTU 1.4). Their priests likely influenced Solomon’s high place for Ashtoreth (1 Kings 11:5).
• Moab and Ammon: Moabite and Ammonite wives introduced Chemosh and Milcom (Molech), national gods akin to Yahweh, as evidenced by the Mesha Stele (c. 840 BCE) and Solomon’s high places (1 Kings 11:7).
• Quote: Mark S. Smith notes, “Israelite religion in its earliest phases included elements of Canaanite religion, such as the divine council” (The Early History of God, 2002, p. 49), suggesting Solomon’s exposure to these ideas via his wives.

Divine Council and Elyon

 
Solomon’s theology, shaped by these intellectual traditions, aligned with the concept of a divine council under El/Elyon (“Most High”), as seen in:

• Deuteronomy 32:8-9 (Dead Sea Scrolls): “When the Most High [Elyon] gave to the nations their inheritance… he fixed the borders of the peoples according to the number of the sons of God.” This suggests Elyon assigned nations to divine beings, with Yahweh governing Israel.
• Psalm 82:1, 6: “God [Elohim] has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods he holds judgment… I said, ‘You are gods, sons of the Most High [Elyon].’”
• Ugaritic Texts: The Baal Cycle (KTU 1.4) and El’s assembly (KTU 1.15) depict El as the father of 70 divine sons and daughters, including Athtart (Ashtoreth), paralleling Solomon’s recognition of foreign gods.
• Solomon likely viewed deities like Ashtoreth, Chemosh, and Milcom as legitimate “sons and daughters of Elyon,” not idols, integrating them into his religious policy via high places (1 Kings 11:7-8).
• Quote: John Day states, “Solomon’s worship of Ashtoreth and other deities reflects a monolatrous framework, not necessarily apostasy” (Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan, 2000, p. 155), supporting his intellectual approach.

Proverbs 8 and Wisdom’s Role

 
Proverbs 8:22-31 personifies Wisdom (Hokhmah) as a female figure created before the world, assisting Yahweh in creation: “The Lord created me at the beginning of his work… I was beside him, like a master workman” (8:22, 30). This reflects:

• Egyptian Influence: Ma’at, the goddess of order, parallels Wisdom’s cosmic role, likely introduced by Pharaoh’s daughter.
• Canaanite Influence: Asherah/Athtart, linked to Solomon’s Sidonian wives, may have shaped Wisdom’s feminine imagery, as seen in Kuntillet Ajrud’s “Yahweh and his Asherah” inscriptions (c. 9th–8th century BCE).
• Implication: Solomon equated Wisdom with divine figures like Ma’at or Ashtoreth, viewing them as part of Elyon’s council, not idols.
• Quote: William G. Dever argues, “The personification of Wisdom in Proverbs 8 likely draws on Asherah traditions, reflecting Israelite syncretism” (Did God Have a Wife?, 2005, p. 210).

Archaeological Evidence

 
Archaeological sites confirm Solomon’s syncretic environment, shaped by his wives’ cultures:

• Kuntillet Ajrud (Sinai, c. 9th–8th century BCE): Inscriptions reading “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah” and sacred tree imagery suggest worship of a divine consort, linking to Solomon’s Ashtoreth cult (1 Kings 11:5). Phoenician pottery indicates Sidonian influence.
• Mesha Stele (Moab, c. 840 BCE): Describes Chemosh as Moab’s patron, paralleling Yahweh, supporting Solomon’s high place for Chemosh (1 Kings 11:7) as recognition of a legitimate deity.
• Megiddo (Israel, c. 10th century BCE): Egyptian scarabs and administrative complexes reflect the daughter of Pharaoh’s influence, linking to Proverbs 8’s Ma’at-like Wisdom.
• Tel Dan (c. 10th–9th century BCE): A high place and Phoenician artifacts suggest syncretism, echoing Solomon’s shrines.
• Arad Sanctuary (Judah, c. 10th–8th century BCE): Massebot possibly representing Yahweh and Asherah indicate a divine pair, consistent with Solomon’s theology.
• Quote: Dever notes, “Kuntillet Ajrud’s inscriptions show that Asherah was worshipped alongside Yahweh in pre-exilic Israel, likely reflecting Solomon’s practices” (Did God Have a Wife?, 2005, p. 176).

Influence in Later Traditions

 
Solomon’s syncretic theology and wisdom, shaped by his wives’ intellectual centers, left a lasting legacy:

• Second Temple Judaism: Wisdom of Solomon (c. 1st century BCE) expands Proverbs 8, portraying Wisdom as a divine emanation (Wisdom 7:25). Philo of Alexandria equates Wisdom with the Logos, reflecting Solomon’s synthesis of Jewish and foreign (Egyptian, Greek) thought.
• Early Christianity: Proverbs 8 influenced Logos Christology (John 1:1-3), with Justin Martyr and Origen linking Wisdom to Jesus. Some texts (Gospel of the Hebrews) tied Wisdom to the Holy Spirit, echoing Asherah-like feminine imagery.
• Rabbinic Judaism: The Talmud (Sanhedrin 20b) and Zohar recast Wisdom as the Torah or Shekhinah, preserving Solomon’s divine feminine theology.
• Islamic Traditions: The Qur’an (Surah 27:15-44) portrays Sulayman as a wise prophet, reflecting his cosmopolitan court and diplomatic wisdom, without idolatry charges.
• Broader Traditions: The Kebra Nagast (Ethiopia, c. 14th century CE) and medieval esotericism (Key of Solomon) highlight Solomon’s wisdom and mystical legacy, rooted in his engagement with diverse traditions.
• Quote: Mark S. Smith observes, “Solomon’s wisdom literature influenced Jewish and Christian thought, carrying forward his syncretic engagement with divine figures” (The Early History of God, 2002, p. 132).

Refined Divine Council Diagram

 
The divine council, as Solomon likely understood it, is visualized as:

• Top Tier: El/Elyon, on a throne with a halo of 70 stars, holding a scroll of 70 nations (Deuteronomy 32:8), set against Mount Zaphon (Ugaritic mythology).
• Second Tier: Yahweh (with a menorah, symbolizing the Temple), Wisdom (Hokhmah, with a balance and sacred tree, reflecting Proverbs 8 and Asherah/Ma’at), Ashtoreth (star-topped scepter, Phoenician ship), Chemosh (spear, Moabite stele), and Milcom (scepter, Ammonite seal).
• Third Tier: 70 nations, each with cultural symbols (Egyptian pyramid, Phoenician ship, Moabite stele).
• Connections: Golden lines link Elyon to deities, with dotted lines tying Wisdom to Ashtoreth, Chemosh, and Milcom, reflecting Solomon’s syncretism. Artifacts (Kuntillet Ajrud tree, Mesha Stele) and a timeline (Solomon’s reign, Ugaritic texts) anchor the diagram historically.
• Implication: This diagram illustrates Solomon’s view of foreign deities as legitimate under Elyon, influenced by his wives’ intellectual traditions, not idolatry.

Conclusion

 
Solomon’s 700 wives from Egypt, Phoenicia, Moab, and Ammon brought intellectual traditions that shaped his theology, as seen in Proverbs 8’s Wisdom, Ugaritic parallels (Baal Cycle), and archaeological evidence (Kuntillet Ajrud, Mesha Stele). He viewed deities like Ashtoreth, Chemosh, and Milcom as legitimate “sons and daughters of Elyon” within a divine council (Deuteronomy 32:8-9, Psalm 82), not idols, as later writers claimed (1 Kings 11:4-10). His wisdom, reflected in Proverbs 8, influenced Jewish (Wisdom of Solomon, Shekhinah), Christian (Logos, Holy Spirit), Islamic (Sulayman), and broader traditions, affirming his role as a wise investigator, not an idolater.

• Final Quote: John Day concludes, “Solomon’s religious policy reflects a henotheistic worldview, integrating foreign deities into a divine council, consistent with early Israelite religion” (Yahweh and the Gods, 2000, p. 160).

Sources: 

 

1. Smith, Mark S. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel. 2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2002.
2. Day, John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
3. Dever, William G. Did God Have a Wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel. Eerdmans, 2005.
4. The Hebrew Bible (English Standard Version), Crossway, 2001.
5. Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed., Princeton University Press, 1969 (for Ugaritic texts).
6. The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible, translated by Martin G. Abegg Jr., et al., HarperOne, 1999.